Recommended listening: Tibetan Monks Chanting Om
Story
Strong winds whistle through the mountains of western Tibet. From a balcony in a lofty summer palace, a woman gazes out on the arid landscape. Below her runs a network of tunnels and caves that form the city of Tsaparang, capital of the kingdom of Guge. The Sutlej River snakes through the dry valley, bringing water to a thirsty land. Although her clothes are relatively plain, precious turquoise gleams in the sunlight, woven into her thin black braids. She is Hrugs 'or za, a lady of the powerful Hrugs wer clan. Her family's wealth and power, and her own deep religious devotion, led her to patronize one of the greatest religious projects of the Guge kingdom, the monastery at Tabo.
The turn of the millennium was also a turning point for the future of Tibetan Buddhism. Ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire in the 9th century, a lack of royal institutional support meant that Buddhism had floundered in Tibet. But the 10th century saw the formation of several different kingdoms built out of the empire's ashes. One of these was Guge in western Tibet. From its capital of Tsaparang, Guge controlled much of the trade between central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It was also an intellectual crossroads, attracting Buddhist scholars and artists from all over Asia. The latter was made possible by king Yeshe Ö, Guge's second king. In 986, he issued a proclamation calling on his people to follow Buddhist teachings. He sent twenty-one young monks to study Buddhism in Kashmir. Facing the harsh conditions of northern India, only two of them would return.
In the meantime, Yeshe Ö set out founding Buddhist monasteries throughout his kingdom. He planned them out in a grand mandala, emanating from the royal centre of Tholing where he founded a monastery in 996. The other monasteries were founded in the same year in different regions where he wanted to strengthen royal power. One of these was Tabo in the Spiti Valley. Located on a major trade route, Tabo was an important pilgrimage destination. Incredibly, the murals at Tabo from the foundation in 996 still survive. These murals depict the lay and monastic donors who sponsored the construction of the temple. Yeshe Ö didn't found them alone: Local noble families are prominently represented in these murals. Of particular interest is that there are many women included in their numbers.
The family best represented at Tholing is the Hrugs wer family. Seven of the eight laywomen donors at that monastery hailed from the Hrugs wer. Aristocratic families in Tibet were crucial in supporting Yeshe Ö's expansion of Buddhism, known as the "second diffusion" of Buddhism in Tibet. Many women of the Hrugs wer clan contributed to the founding of the monasteries at Tholing and Tabo, suggesting they were major power players in the region. In addition to their major patronage of Tholing, one of the donors at Tabo was identified as "Hrugs 'or za", meaning a lady of the Hrugs wer clan. Tabo's protectress goddess Wi nyu myin was depicted in the entry hall accompanied by eighteen female attendants, all dressed as high-ranking Tibetan women. The goddess rode a grey reindeer as her heavenly mount. Researchers have been unable to find out much about this goddess, but it's clear from the monastery at Tabo that women played a major role in her worship. She is thought to represent the syncretism of Buddhism with Bon, the native religion of Tibet. The early murals of Tabo show significant influence of Bon iconography. To the women who donated funds to the temple, this did not pose any sort of contradiction.
But things would change in the year 1000. In that year, two Tibetan monks returned from Kashmir, the only ones to survive out of the original twenty-one. One of them was Rinchen Zangpo. After studying under the great Indian master Atiśa, he returned to his homeland to share what he had learned. He quickly began translating Sanskrit texts into the Tibetan language, earning him his moniker of the Great Translator. He was no doubt impressed with the dedication Yeshe Ö had shown by founding new monasteries in his absence, but he also seems to have initiated some changes in the relationship between Bon and Buddhism. As the indigenous religion of Tibet, Bon was completely absent from the version of Buddhism Zangpo had been taught under Atiśa in India. The murals in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries made after Zangpo's return to Tibet strip away the iconography of the Bon religion, instead privileging iconography from Kashmir.
How did the women who first sponsored Tabo monastery feel about the changes Zangpo made to their religion, just a few years after they'd memorialized themselves as members of the retinue of Wi nyu myin? Any reactions or debates meeting Zangpo on his return are lost to history. The narrative of Tibetan Buddhism about this period is a triumphant one, lauding the success of Yeshe Ö and Rinchen Zangpo against Bon's polluting influences. It's possible that the women of the Hrugs wer and other clans were happy to accept Zangpo's changes, eager to emulate the esteemed Buddhism of India. They certainly continue to appear as donors in temple paintings after the year 1000. Their goddess also continues to appear under the name Dorje Chenmo. Although her depictions become increasingly influenced by Kashmiri art styles, they do maintain some ancient Tibetan symbols which likely originated in Bon religion.
In spite of the changes that took place after Zangpo's return in 1000, wealthy women continued to patronize Buddhist monasteries. Yeshe Ö's own daughter became a nun, as her father himself retired his throne to become a monk. Many women, both laywomen and nuns, appear in the murals at Tholing that Zangpo commissioned to memoralize the death of Yeshe Ö. Although we know very little about the role of women in the Guge kingdom, these murals attest to their powerful influence as donors to the most important royal religious institutions of their time. Adorned in turquoise jewellery and long-sleeved robes, they look back at us across the divide of a thousand years, still smiling enigmatically in the portraits they commissioned of themselves. The woman in this illustration looks out from the summer palace atop the citadel of Tsaparang. Perhaps she has just heard that Rinchen Zangpo is on his way home and is waiting curiously for his arrival. Or maybe he has already come back and delivered his verdict on the unacceptable Bon influences in the mural she paid for at Tabo, and she is ruminating on this new information. Ultimately, whatever her initial reaction to Zangpo's reforms, she will no doubt join the other aristocratic women in continuing to patronize Buddhist monasteries, leaving her mark forever on the history of Tibet.
The turn of the millennium was also a turning point for the future of Tibetan Buddhism. Ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire in the 9th century, a lack of royal institutional support meant that Buddhism had floundered in Tibet. But the 10th century saw the formation of several different kingdoms built out of the empire's ashes. One of these was Guge in western Tibet. From its capital of Tsaparang, Guge controlled much of the trade between central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It was also an intellectual crossroads, attracting Buddhist scholars and artists from all over Asia. The latter was made possible by king Yeshe Ö, Guge's second king. In 986, he issued a proclamation calling on his people to follow Buddhist teachings. He sent twenty-one young monks to study Buddhism in Kashmir. Facing the harsh conditions of northern India, only two of them would return.
In the meantime, Yeshe Ö set out founding Buddhist monasteries throughout his kingdom. He planned them out in a grand mandala, emanating from the royal centre of Tholing where he founded a monastery in 996. The other monasteries were founded in the same year in different regions where he wanted to strengthen royal power. One of these was Tabo in the Spiti Valley. Located on a major trade route, Tabo was an important pilgrimage destination. Incredibly, the murals at Tabo from the foundation in 996 still survive. These murals depict the lay and monastic donors who sponsored the construction of the temple. Yeshe Ö didn't found them alone: Local noble families are prominently represented in these murals. Of particular interest is that there are many women included in their numbers.
The family best represented at Tholing is the Hrugs wer family. Seven of the eight laywomen donors at that monastery hailed from the Hrugs wer. Aristocratic families in Tibet were crucial in supporting Yeshe Ö's expansion of Buddhism, known as the "second diffusion" of Buddhism in Tibet. Many women of the Hrugs wer clan contributed to the founding of the monasteries at Tholing and Tabo, suggesting they were major power players in the region. In addition to their major patronage of Tholing, one of the donors at Tabo was identified as "Hrugs 'or za", meaning a lady of the Hrugs wer clan. Tabo's protectress goddess Wi nyu myin was depicted in the entry hall accompanied by eighteen female attendants, all dressed as high-ranking Tibetan women. The goddess rode a grey reindeer as her heavenly mount. Researchers have been unable to find out much about this goddess, but it's clear from the monastery at Tabo that women played a major role in her worship. She is thought to represent the syncretism of Buddhism with Bon, the native religion of Tibet. The early murals of Tabo show significant influence of Bon iconography. To the women who donated funds to the temple, this did not pose any sort of contradiction.
But things would change in the year 1000. In that year, two Tibetan monks returned from Kashmir, the only ones to survive out of the original twenty-one. One of them was Rinchen Zangpo. After studying under the great Indian master Atiśa, he returned to his homeland to share what he had learned. He quickly began translating Sanskrit texts into the Tibetan language, earning him his moniker of the Great Translator. He was no doubt impressed with the dedication Yeshe Ö had shown by founding new monasteries in his absence, but he also seems to have initiated some changes in the relationship between Bon and Buddhism. As the indigenous religion of Tibet, Bon was completely absent from the version of Buddhism Zangpo had been taught under Atiśa in India. The murals in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries made after Zangpo's return to Tibet strip away the iconography of the Bon religion, instead privileging iconography from Kashmir.
How did the women who first sponsored Tabo monastery feel about the changes Zangpo made to their religion, just a few years after they'd memorialized themselves as members of the retinue of Wi nyu myin? Any reactions or debates meeting Zangpo on his return are lost to history. The narrative of Tibetan Buddhism about this period is a triumphant one, lauding the success of Yeshe Ö and Rinchen Zangpo against Bon's polluting influences. It's possible that the women of the Hrugs wer and other clans were happy to accept Zangpo's changes, eager to emulate the esteemed Buddhism of India. They certainly continue to appear as donors in temple paintings after the year 1000. Their goddess also continues to appear under the name Dorje Chenmo. Although her depictions become increasingly influenced by Kashmiri art styles, they do maintain some ancient Tibetan symbols which likely originated in Bon religion.
In spite of the changes that took place after Zangpo's return in 1000, wealthy women continued to patronize Buddhist monasteries. Yeshe Ö's own daughter became a nun, as her father himself retired his throne to become a monk. Many women, both laywomen and nuns, appear in the murals at Tholing that Zangpo commissioned to memoralize the death of Yeshe Ö. Although we know very little about the role of women in the Guge kingdom, these murals attest to their powerful influence as donors to the most important royal religious institutions of their time. Adorned in turquoise jewellery and long-sleeved robes, they look back at us across the divide of a thousand years, still smiling enigmatically in the portraits they commissioned of themselves. The woman in this illustration looks out from the summer palace atop the citadel of Tsaparang. Perhaps she has just heard that Rinchen Zangpo is on his way home and is waiting curiously for his arrival. Or maybe he has already come back and delivered his verdict on the unacceptable Bon influences in the mural she paid for at Tabo, and she is ruminating on this new information. Ultimately, whatever her initial reaction to Zangpo's reforms, she will no doubt join the other aristocratic women in continuing to patronize Buddhist monasteries, leaving her mark forever on the history of Tibet.
Artist's Comments
I was pretty blown away learning about Tsaparang and the beautiful, unusual buildings built in what seems like a very inhospitable landscape. It almost looks like the moon, and yet a wealthy and intellectually influential kingdom thrived there for hundreds of years. I really loved immersing myself in such a different setting while working on this illustration. Thank you to Sacha for all the help on the art with this one! ~ April 9, 2022
Resources
Want to learn more about medieval Tibetan women and the Kingdom of Guge? Here are some recommended resources.
"The Iconography and the Historical Context of the Drinking Scene in the Dukhang at Alchi, Ladakh" by Marjo Alafouzo
This is a great article for analysing Tibetan women's clothing of the period. It's about a mid-11th century depiction of a royal wedding between a Tibetan woman and a foreign man, probably Turkish. The author brings in other art of medieval Tibetan women for comparison, including the attendants at Tabo monastery from 996. That's where I first saw their image, which I used as the basis for the clothing of the woman in my picture.
"Imagining the world of Ye shes 'od: 10th century painting in Tabo" by Deborah Klimburg-Salter
This article highlights what we know about women in the Tabo paintings. Klimburg-Slater points out that "women are a little studied social group of those present in the 996 foundation murals". She explains the significance of Wi nyu myin and her female attendants, and points out that Yeshe Öd's daughter was a nun who founded a monastery. This article also includes a discussion of the influence that Rinchen Zangpo's return to Tibet from Kashmir had on the relationship between Bon and Buddhism.
"Preliminary Remarks on the Donor Inscriptions and Iconography of an 11th-century Mchod Rten at Tholing" by Amy Heller
The name of the woman in this illustration comes from this article. Heller points out that one of the donor inscriptions in Tabo identifies a female donor called Hrugs 'or za. The article talks a lot about the prominence of the Hrugs 'wer family in the Tholing murals: In fact, most of the lay donors come from this family. The only other lay woman donor is Mang wer za, a lady of the Mang wer family.
"Kingship in Western Tibet in the 10th and 11th Centuries" by Christian Jahoda and Christiane Kalantari
If you'd like to learn more about the relationship between Guge kings and the patronage of Buddhism, this is a great article for that. The authors go through the chronological development of the intensification of royal Buddhist patronage. There's a lot of analysis of the iconography in Tabo monastery here.
"A Note on Źan: Maternal Relatives of the Tibetan Royal Line and Marriage into the Royal Family" by Brandon Dotson
Although this article focuses on the 7th-9th century Tibetan Empire, the insights here about the role of maternal relatives in the Tibetan royal family still applies to Guge. Dotson examines the way that the emperors' mothers were from a few rotating aristocratic clans, and the immense influence that an emperor's maternal relatives had in the government.
"Guge: The Lost Kingdom of Tibet" on YouTube
In this documentary, two archaeologists explore the ruins of Tsaparang and tell the story of the city's rise and fall. The views of the landscape really captured my imagination. The video includes a reconstruction of what Tsaparang looked like in its heyday, which I used to help with the architecture and landscape of my illustration.
"The Iconography and the Historical Context of the Drinking Scene in the Dukhang at Alchi, Ladakh" by Marjo Alafouzo
This is a great article for analysing Tibetan women's clothing of the period. It's about a mid-11th century depiction of a royal wedding between a Tibetan woman and a foreign man, probably Turkish. The author brings in other art of medieval Tibetan women for comparison, including the attendants at Tabo monastery from 996. That's where I first saw their image, which I used as the basis for the clothing of the woman in my picture.
"Imagining the world of Ye shes 'od: 10th century painting in Tabo" by Deborah Klimburg-Salter
This article highlights what we know about women in the Tabo paintings. Klimburg-Slater points out that "women are a little studied social group of those present in the 996 foundation murals". She explains the significance of Wi nyu myin and her female attendants, and points out that Yeshe Öd's daughter was a nun who founded a monastery. This article also includes a discussion of the influence that Rinchen Zangpo's return to Tibet from Kashmir had on the relationship between Bon and Buddhism.
"Preliminary Remarks on the Donor Inscriptions and Iconography of an 11th-century Mchod Rten at Tholing" by Amy Heller
The name of the woman in this illustration comes from this article. Heller points out that one of the donor inscriptions in Tabo identifies a female donor called Hrugs 'or za. The article talks a lot about the prominence of the Hrugs 'wer family in the Tholing murals: In fact, most of the lay donors come from this family. The only other lay woman donor is Mang wer za, a lady of the Mang wer family.
"Kingship in Western Tibet in the 10th and 11th Centuries" by Christian Jahoda and Christiane Kalantari
If you'd like to learn more about the relationship between Guge kings and the patronage of Buddhism, this is a great article for that. The authors go through the chronological development of the intensification of royal Buddhist patronage. There's a lot of analysis of the iconography in Tabo monastery here.
"A Note on Źan: Maternal Relatives of the Tibetan Royal Line and Marriage into the Royal Family" by Brandon Dotson
Although this article focuses on the 7th-9th century Tibetan Empire, the insights here about the role of maternal relatives in the Tibetan royal family still applies to Guge. Dotson examines the way that the emperors' mothers were from a few rotating aristocratic clans, and the immense influence that an emperor's maternal relatives had in the government.
"Guge: The Lost Kingdom of Tibet" on YouTube
In this documentary, two archaeologists explore the ruins of Tsaparang and tell the story of the city's rise and fall. The views of the landscape really captured my imagination. The video includes a reconstruction of what Tsaparang looked like in its heyday, which I used to help with the architecture and landscape of my illustration.