Recommended listening: Mamadou Diabaté - Tunga
Story
Weaving its way through the arid world of the Sahel, the Niger River left incredible cities in its wake. All along its banks, rich settlements sprung up, taking advantage of the annual floods that brought incredible fertility to the soil. Many empires have risen and fallen along that river. In the year 1000, the most powerful of these was Kawkaw. Kawkaw held even more sway in West Africa than the more famous Ghana Empire, its neighbour to the west. Beginning in the 9th century, Arab traders wrote of its incredible wealth and power. They came from far and wide to trade in Gao, travelling along the trans-Saharan trade network to reach its twin capital cities. One half of the city was home to a permanent community of Muslim merchants, while the other housed the king and his royal retinue. The wealth of the king of Gao was built primarily on one extremely desirable commodity: Salt. Alongside the trade in livestock and ivory, the salt trade funneled great riches into Gao, enabling the city's elite to import fine goods from North Africa and Asia.
These connections with the wider world also brought new ideas to Gao. At some point in the late 10th century, some of the elites in Gao, including the king, converted to Islam. They were far from the only West African kingdom to do so. In addition to genuine faith in Allah, there were many incentives for kings to convert. Islam brought writing and access to the learning of some of the finest scholars of the age. It facilitated further trade connections, deepening Kawkaw's ties to nations to the north and east. Islam could also confer additional legitimacy on a ruler, which seems to have been a factor for the kings in Gao. After the elites of Kawkaw adopted Islam, the installation of a king saw him receiving a signet ring, a sword, and a copy of the Koran. From that point on, the people of Kawkaw would only allow a Muslim to be their king. It's possible that they originally followed Ibadi Islam, a minority group under the Sunni faith of the Abbasid Caliphate. Perhaps this is why, in spite of 10th century descriptions calling their king a Muslim, the king Kusuy is credited with the official conversion to Islam in 1009: He may have switched to a more mainstream sect.
The king's palace must have been a formidable sight to behold. With thick mudbrick wall over ten metres high, it towered over the Wadi Gangaber, a tributary of the Niger that flowed in its shadow. On the inside, the walls were plastered in red and white. The king had a personal treasure-house which was mostly filled with salt, the symbol and source of his wealth, and his closest attendant was a eunuch who was one of the only other people allowed access to it. Archaeologists have found the remains of many luxury goods in the palace's ruins, from bottles of perfume and jewellery boxes to iron swords and Chinese pottery. Thousands upon thousands of glass beads have also been found in Gao's medieval palace, more than at any other site in West Africa. Many of them are of a deep cerulean hue. They were imported from as far away as Baghdad, sometimes to be worn as is, other times to be melted down and reshaped into forms more popular with locals. These beads must have been the main form of ornamentation worn by the wealthiest inhabitants of Gao.
The royal palace was the site of one important ritual recorded by Arab writers in the late 10th century. They complained that while the king was ostensibly a Muslim, many pagan echoes remained in the kingdom's royal rituals:
They worship idols as do the other Sūdān. When their king sits down a drum is beaten, the Sudanese women dance with their thick hair flowing, and nobody in the town goes about his business until he has finished his repast, the remnants of which are thrown into the Nile.
The term "Sudanese" in this passage refers simply to Black people, and the Nile refers symbolically to the Wadi. Prefaced as it is with a condemnation of idol worship, this ritual no doubt predated Islam's arrival in the empire of Kawkaw. It connected the king's feasting to the all-important river that made Gao's prosperity possible. And at the focal point of the ritual were women.
We know very little about the women of Gao of this period. Were these royal dancers enslaved by the king? Or were they high-status free women, perhaps members of the royal family themselves? Did they adorn themselves in glittering beads of bright blue, which flashed in the brilliant sunlight as they danced? Sadly, we will probably never know the exact status of these women dancers. Domestic slavery existed but was a relatively minor feature in Kawkaw's society at this time, so it's possible the women were free. Women's tools have been found in the palace, such as spindle whorls and cookware, but we do not know the legal status of the women who used them. A little more evidence survives about the highest-status women in Gao, its queens. In the 12th century, marble monuments were erected to memorialize queens in Gao alongside their husbands. Epigraphic evidence suggests that there were queens known as malikat who ruled in their own right, and that the royal lineage was at least sometimes matrilineal.
Whether the royal dancers were daughters of the king and queen or enslaved by them, they played a crucial role in rituals that demonstrated the king's sacred connection to the Niger River. While we can never know with any certainty how much agency they had over their own lives, I chose to draw this dancer thoroughly enjoying herself. I based her movements on traditional dancers from modern Gao. The beaded ornaments they wear in their hair bear some resemblance to those depicted on medieval Sahelian sculptures. Other sculptures from the period show ornate necklaces that may have held the beautiful blue beads archaeologists have found in Gao. The woven skirts these statues wear are attested in the archaeological record, too. Dancing on finely paved mudbrick floor, she waved a sash in the air as her thick hair flowed behind her. Her dance was so memorable, so important, that a mention of it has come down to us through a thousand years.
These connections with the wider world also brought new ideas to Gao. At some point in the late 10th century, some of the elites in Gao, including the king, converted to Islam. They were far from the only West African kingdom to do so. In addition to genuine faith in Allah, there were many incentives for kings to convert. Islam brought writing and access to the learning of some of the finest scholars of the age. It facilitated further trade connections, deepening Kawkaw's ties to nations to the north and east. Islam could also confer additional legitimacy on a ruler, which seems to have been a factor for the kings in Gao. After the elites of Kawkaw adopted Islam, the installation of a king saw him receiving a signet ring, a sword, and a copy of the Koran. From that point on, the people of Kawkaw would only allow a Muslim to be their king. It's possible that they originally followed Ibadi Islam, a minority group under the Sunni faith of the Abbasid Caliphate. Perhaps this is why, in spite of 10th century descriptions calling their king a Muslim, the king Kusuy is credited with the official conversion to Islam in 1009: He may have switched to a more mainstream sect.
The king's palace must have been a formidable sight to behold. With thick mudbrick wall over ten metres high, it towered over the Wadi Gangaber, a tributary of the Niger that flowed in its shadow. On the inside, the walls were plastered in red and white. The king had a personal treasure-house which was mostly filled with salt, the symbol and source of his wealth, and his closest attendant was a eunuch who was one of the only other people allowed access to it. Archaeologists have found the remains of many luxury goods in the palace's ruins, from bottles of perfume and jewellery boxes to iron swords and Chinese pottery. Thousands upon thousands of glass beads have also been found in Gao's medieval palace, more than at any other site in West Africa. Many of them are of a deep cerulean hue. They were imported from as far away as Baghdad, sometimes to be worn as is, other times to be melted down and reshaped into forms more popular with locals. These beads must have been the main form of ornamentation worn by the wealthiest inhabitants of Gao.
The royal palace was the site of one important ritual recorded by Arab writers in the late 10th century. They complained that while the king was ostensibly a Muslim, many pagan echoes remained in the kingdom's royal rituals:
They worship idols as do the other Sūdān. When their king sits down a drum is beaten, the Sudanese women dance with their thick hair flowing, and nobody in the town goes about his business until he has finished his repast, the remnants of which are thrown into the Nile.
The term "Sudanese" in this passage refers simply to Black people, and the Nile refers symbolically to the Wadi. Prefaced as it is with a condemnation of idol worship, this ritual no doubt predated Islam's arrival in the empire of Kawkaw. It connected the king's feasting to the all-important river that made Gao's prosperity possible. And at the focal point of the ritual were women.
We know very little about the women of Gao of this period. Were these royal dancers enslaved by the king? Or were they high-status free women, perhaps members of the royal family themselves? Did they adorn themselves in glittering beads of bright blue, which flashed in the brilliant sunlight as they danced? Sadly, we will probably never know the exact status of these women dancers. Domestic slavery existed but was a relatively minor feature in Kawkaw's society at this time, so it's possible the women were free. Women's tools have been found in the palace, such as spindle whorls and cookware, but we do not know the legal status of the women who used them. A little more evidence survives about the highest-status women in Gao, its queens. In the 12th century, marble monuments were erected to memorialize queens in Gao alongside their husbands. Epigraphic evidence suggests that there were queens known as malikat who ruled in their own right, and that the royal lineage was at least sometimes matrilineal.
Whether the royal dancers were daughters of the king and queen or enslaved by them, they played a crucial role in rituals that demonstrated the king's sacred connection to the Niger River. While we can never know with any certainty how much agency they had over their own lives, I chose to draw this dancer thoroughly enjoying herself. I based her movements on traditional dancers from modern Gao. The beaded ornaments they wear in their hair bear some resemblance to those depicted on medieval Sahelian sculptures. Other sculptures from the period show ornate necklaces that may have held the beautiful blue beads archaeologists have found in Gao. The woven skirts these statues wear are attested in the archaeological record, too. Dancing on finely paved mudbrick floor, she waved a sash in the air as her thick hair flowed behind her. Her dance was so memorable, so important, that a mention of it has come down to us through a thousand years.
Artist's Comments
I have been trying to draw this picture since June of last year. It is a relief to finally have it done! It took so many different compositions before I found something that I felt captured the dynamic movement of the dance. Thank you to Sacha for help, and for everyone else who has offered advice and support during the many months I've been trying to draw this one. Reading the detail about how the women's hair flowed while they danced really stuck with me. I'm glad I've finally been able to bring it to life. I'm not fully satisfied with the colour of balance, but I almost always seem to say that.
There are so many more stories I want to tell about the amazing kingdoms of West Africa in the year 1000. I'm really glad to be able to share the story of Gao with you today! ~ April 23, 2022
There are so many more stories I want to tell about the amazing kingdoms of West Africa in the year 1000. I'm really glad to be able to share the story of Gao with you today! ~ April 23, 2022
Resources
Want to learn more about medieval Gao? Here are some recommended resources.
"Discovery of the earliest royal palace in Gao and its implications for the history of West Africa" by Shoichiro Takezawa and Mamadou Cissé
The quotation about the dancers in Gao which I based my illustration on comes from this article. It's a really great report on the palace architecture at Gao dating to this period. There are really helpful maps in here too. You can read more about archaeology at Gao in articles that focus on evidence for trade and on the many glass beads found there.
African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa by Michael A. Gomez
Gomez's book situates Gao in the wider history of empires in West Africa. The chapter on Gao gives a fantastic overview of the city's history and emphasizes its prominence in the medieval political and economic landscape. It's particularly helpful for understanding the changing role of Islam across the empire's history.
Caravans of Gold, Fragments in Time
This exhibition from the Smithsonian National Museum of African Art explores the archaeological and textual information we have about the importance of the Sahara in medieval times. Gao is mentioned throughout, and you can see a huge variety of incredible art from medieval West Africa. It includes an interview with Mamadou Cissé, one of the main archaeologists who has worked on Gao and co-author of many of the archaeological papers linked above. The interview is in French with English subtitles. There is another short video about Gao on the website. If you are a teacher who would like to include information from this exhibit in your work, they have compiled a Teachers' Guide too.
"The social context of food technology in Iron Age Gao, Mali" by Rachel MacLean and Timothy Insoll
This is a really interesting article about the evidence for food preparation in Gao. The authors draw on anthropological information about how cooking is done in this part of Mali today and find many commonalities with the food technology of medieval Gao. I have often considered drawing a woman from Gao cooking based on this article.
"The History of West Africa at a Glance" by Mia Sogoba
This interactive website shows you a progression of maps of West Africa that detail its history. If you click through to the 1000 AD map, you can see where Gao was situated compared to other major political regions at the time. Gao's beginnings are discussed alongside the 800 AD map. The page also includes a robust bibliography for further reading about West African history.
"Discovery of the earliest royal palace in Gao and its implications for the history of West Africa" by Shoichiro Takezawa and Mamadou Cissé
The quotation about the dancers in Gao which I based my illustration on comes from this article. It's a really great report on the palace architecture at Gao dating to this period. There are really helpful maps in here too. You can read more about archaeology at Gao in articles that focus on evidence for trade and on the many glass beads found there.
African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa by Michael A. Gomez
Gomez's book situates Gao in the wider history of empires in West Africa. The chapter on Gao gives a fantastic overview of the city's history and emphasizes its prominence in the medieval political and economic landscape. It's particularly helpful for understanding the changing role of Islam across the empire's history.
Caravans of Gold, Fragments in Time
This exhibition from the Smithsonian National Museum of African Art explores the archaeological and textual information we have about the importance of the Sahara in medieval times. Gao is mentioned throughout, and you can see a huge variety of incredible art from medieval West Africa. It includes an interview with Mamadou Cissé, one of the main archaeologists who has worked on Gao and co-author of many of the archaeological papers linked above. The interview is in French with English subtitles. There is another short video about Gao on the website. If you are a teacher who would like to include information from this exhibit in your work, they have compiled a Teachers' Guide too.
"The social context of food technology in Iron Age Gao, Mali" by Rachel MacLean and Timothy Insoll
This is a really interesting article about the evidence for food preparation in Gao. The authors draw on anthropological information about how cooking is done in this part of Mali today and find many commonalities with the food technology of medieval Gao. I have often considered drawing a woman from Gao cooking based on this article.
"The History of West Africa at a Glance" by Mia Sogoba
This interactive website shows you a progression of maps of West Africa that detail its history. If you click through to the 1000 AD map, you can see where Gao was situated compared to other major political regions at the time. Gao's beginnings are discussed alongside the 800 AD map. The page also includes a robust bibliography for further reading about West African history.